#5 Development of Theory

Module #5

Lesson Title: Development of Theory

Lesson Objectives:

At the end of this module, you should be able to:

1.  explain the stages of theory development; and

apply the kind of reasoning in a given scenario.

A. LESSON PREVIEW/REVIEW

Introduction (2 mins)

How are you class? I hope you’re doing great. Today, our topic is all about, “The Development of Theory”. But before that, let’s have a recap of our lesson yesterday. Yes, anybody from the group who can recall what was our lesson yesterday? (The teacher must ask at least two (2) students to answer). Okay, great! So, our lesson yesterday was all about, “Theory and Practice”. The learning objectives for today are: a) explain the stages of theory development; and b) apply the kind of reasoning in a given scenario. Our topic today is still connected with the previous one since it is still about theory. Theorists tend to formulate theories to cite what are the causes why a person commits a crime. However, the focus of our topic today does not dwell on the various theories why a person commits a crime but on how the theory is being developed. Are you guys ready? Alright, let’s begin with this first activity!

B.MAIN LESSON

Activity 2: Content Notes (13 mins)

Concepts of Theory Development

Scientists formulate theories, test theories, accept theories, reject theories, modify theories and use theories as guides to understanding and predicting events. Theories are fruits of scientific research. Scientific research is a process that is designed to extend our understanding and to determine if they are correct or useful.

As cited in (http://faculty.jou.ufl.edu/theory.html), there are three stages of theory development.

1)  Speculative - attempts to explain what is happening.

2)  Descriptive - gathers descriptive data to describe what is really happening.

3)  Constructive - revises old theories and develops new ones based on continuing research.

 

In order to understand how theory is developed, it is better to cite the three (3) kinds of reasoning (Thompson, 2006):

1)   Inductive Reasoning: A process of using examples and observations to reach a conclusion. A conclusion based in inductive reasoning is called conjecture. (Example):

90% of humans are right-handed. Joe is a human.

Therefore, the probability that Joe is right-handed is 90%. If you were required to guess, you would choose “right-handed” in the absence of any other evidence.

 

2)  Deductive Reasoning (Example): All men are mortal.

John is a man.  Therefore, John is mortal.

3)  Abductive Reasoning is also known as Retroductive Reasoning (Example):

You're a juror and the defendant looks like the image of the man on the security camera robbing the bank. He stutters and pauses, like he is guilty, when answering questions posed by the prosecutor. You conclude, as a juror on your first day as a member of the jury, that he is guilty, but you are not certain. Here, you have made a decision based on your observations, but you are not certain it is the right decision

 

Deductive reasoning- is criticized for the lack of clarity in terms of how to select theory to be tested via formulating hypotheses.

Inductive reasoning – is also criticized because “no amount of empirical data will necessarily enable theory-building.

Abductive reasoning, as a third alternative, overcomes these weaknesses via adopting a pragmatist perspective

The biggest difference between deductive and inductive reasoning is that deductive reasoning starts with a statement or hypothesis and then tests to see if it’s true through observation, where inductive reasoning starts with observations and moves backward towards generalizations and theories.

The critical point relating to theory construction is its purpose to predict. The main purpose of theory is to provide the means to develop mathematical, analytical and descriptive models that predict counterintuitive, non-obvious, unseen, or difficult-to-obtain outcomes. The theory is clearly derived by some other means- it is the imagination and creative insight of the innovator by which theory is developed. Barney Glaser and Anselm Strauss developed the “Grounded Theory” Approach (Glaser, 1967) to develop theory in social sciences. Grounded Theory (inspired the inductive reasoning) asserts that theory is “discovered” as the result of systematically analysing data or data mining techniques. Induction validates theory, it does not develop theory. It is mainly applicable for qualitative research (Jaccard, 2014).

Hypotheses must be part of some theory structure, or they are nothing more than the opinion of the researcher, even if that opinion is subsequently “validated.” According to Merriam-Webster’s Dictionary, hypothesis is a tentative assumption made in order to draw out and test its logical or empirical consequences. It is this process of hypothesis creation that has resulted in numerous “tests” of the same subject area resulting in differing conclusions. Theory generates hypotheses, hypotheses do not create theory nor are they themselves theory.

 

Developing    an     inductive     or    grounded    theory    generally     follows    the     following  steps (http://sociology.about.com/od/Research/a/Inductive-Theory-Construction.html):

 

1.  Research design: Define your research questions and the main concepts and variables involved.

2.   Data collection: Collect data for your study using any of the various methods (field research, interviews, surveys, etc.)

3.  Data ordering: Arrange your data chronologically to facilitate easier data analysis and examination of processes.

4.  Data analysis: Analyze your data using methods of your choosing to look for patterns, connections, and significant findings.

5.  Theory construction: Using the patterns and findings from your data analysis, develop a theory about what you discovered.

6.   Literature comparison: Compare your emerging theory with the existing literature. Are there conflicting frameworks, similar frameworks, etc.?

Congratulations! That’s enough for today; study the Formula of Crime Causation found in our textbook (Pages 21-24). Thank you!